DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007076. Single‐particle measurements of midlatitude black carbon and light‐scattering aerosols from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere

Single‐particle measurements of midlatitude black carbon and light‐scattering aerosols from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere

10.1029/2006jd007076

Crossref journal-article

American Geophysical Union (AGU)

Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (13)

Abstract

A single‐particle soot photometer (SP2) was flown on a NASA WB‐57F high‐altitude research aircraft in November 2004 from Houston, Texas. The SP2 uses laser‐induced incandescence to detect individual black carbon (BC) particles in an air sample in the mass range of ∼3–300 fg (∼0.15–0.7 μm volume equivalent diameter). Scattered light is used to size the remaining non‐BC aerosols in the range of ∼0.17–0.7 μm diameter. We present profiles of both aerosol types from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere from two midlatitude flights. Results for total aerosol amounts in the size range detected by the SP2 are in good agreement with typical particle spectrometer measurements in the same region. All ambient incandescing particles were identified as BC because their incandescence properties matched those of laboratory‐generated BC aerosol. Approximately 40% of these BC particles showed evidence of internal mixing (e.g., coating). Throughout profiles between 5 and 18.7 km, BC particles were less than a few percent of total aerosol number, and black carbon aerosol (BCA) mass mixing ratio showed a constant gradient with altitude above 5 km. SP2 data was compared to results from the ECHAM4/MADE and LmDzT‐INCA global aerosol models. The comparison will help resolve the important systematic differences in model aerosol processes that determine BCA loadings. Further intercomparisons of models and measurements as presented here will improve the accuracy of the radiative forcing contribution from BCA.

Bibliography

Schwarz, J. P., Gao, R. S., Fahey, D. W., Thomson, D. S., Watts, L. A., Wilson, J. C., Reeves, J. M., Darbeheshti, M., Baumgardner, D. G., Kok, G. L., Chung, S. H., Schulz, M., Hendricks, J., Lauer, A., KÃ¤rcher, B., Slowik, J. G., Rosenlof, K. H., Thompson, T. L., Langford, A. O., â¦ Aikin, K. C. (2006). Singleâparticle measurements of midlatitude black carbon and lightâscattering aerosols from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 111(D16). Portico.

Authors 21

J. P. Schwarz (first)
R. S. Gao (additional)
D. W. Fahey (additional)
D. S. Thomson (additional)
L. A. Watts (additional)
J. C. Wilson (additional)
J. M. Reeves (additional)
M. Darbeheshti (additional)
D. G. Baumgardner (additional)
G. L. Kok (additional)
S. H. Chung (additional)
M. Schulz (additional)
J. Hendricks (additional)
A. Lauer (additional)
B. Kärcher (additional)
J. G. Slowik (additional)
K. H. Rosenlof (additional)
T. L. Thompson (additional)
A. O. Langford (additional)
M. Loewenstein (additional)
K. C. Aikin (additional)

References 45 Referenced 611

10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00361-6
10.1029/2003GL018883
10.1029/94JD03118
10.1029/2001JD001397
10.1029/2004JD005441
10.1029/2003JD004378
10.1029/96JD00671
10.5194/acpd-6-2703-2006
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.12.046
10.1088/0022-3727/30/12/003
10.1029/97JD03426
10.1016/0048-9697(84)90279-1
10.5194/acp-4-2521-2004
{'volume-title': 'Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis—Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change', 'year': '2001', 'author': 'Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change', 'key': 'e_1_2_8_15_1'} / Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis—Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001)
10.1029/1999GL010968
10.1080/027868200410840
10.1175/1520-0426(1995)012<0115:POAFCA>2.0.CO;2
10.1039/dc9878300125
10.5194/acp-5-1053-2005
10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00368-9
10.1029/2004JD005296
10.1029/2005JD006257
10.1029/1998JD100091
10.5194/acp-5-3251-2005
10.1016/S1386-1425(02)00048-3
10.1029/1999JD901199
10.1021/jp036080l
10.1029/2004JD005169
{'issue': '52', 'key': 'e_1_2_8_30_1', 'article-title': 'Evolution of mixing state and size distribution of black carbon in the urban plumes observed over the ocean', 'volume': '86', 'author': 'Moteki N.', 'year': '2005', 'journal-title': 'Eos Trans. AGU'} / Eos Trans. AGU / Evolution of mixing state and size distribution of black carbon in the urban plumes observed over the ocean by Moteki N. (2005)
10.1126/science.282.5394.1664
10.1080/02786820490443094
10.1016/0048-9697(84)90284-5
10.1126/science.256.5062.1432
{'key': 'e_1_2_8_35_1', 'first-page': '78', 'article-title': 'Continuous measurement of atmospheric black carbon using a multi‐angle absorption photometer', 'volume': '4', 'author': 'Petzold A.', 'year': '2002', 'journal-title': 'Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.'} / Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. / Continuous measurement of atmospheric black carbon using a multi‐angle absorption photometer by Petzold A. (2002)
10.1007/s00216-002-1611-5 / Anal. Bioanal. Chem. / Aerosol particle analysis: Challenges and progress by Pöschl U. (2002)
10.1063/1.1137316
10.1029/92GL01801
10.1073/pnas.0731897100
10.1029/2004JD004548
10.1080/027868290903916
10.1364/AO.42.003726
10.1029/1999JD900453
10.5194/acpd-5-8331-2005
10.5194/acp-5-2289-2005
10.1029/JC088iC11p06781

Dates

Type	When
Created	18 years, 11 months ago (Aug. 28, 2006, 4:03 p.m.)
Deposited	1 year, 10 months ago (Oct. 12, 2023, 11:36 p.m.)
Indexed	2 days, 9 hours ago (Aug. 21, 2025, 2:05 p.m.)
Issued	18 years, 11 months ago (Aug. 27, 2006)
Published	18 years, 11 months ago (Aug. 27, 2006)
Published Online	18 years, 11 months ago (Aug. 29, 2006)
Published Print	18 years, 11 months ago (Aug. 27, 2006)

Funders 0

None

BibTeX

@article{Schwarz_2006, title={Single‐particle measurements of midlatitude black carbon and light‐scattering aerosols from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere}, volume={111}, ISSN={0148-0227}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006jd007076}, DOI={10.1029/2006jd007076}, number={D16}, journal={Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres}, publisher={American Geophysical Union (AGU)}, author={Schwarz, J. P. and Gao, R. S. and Fahey, D. W. and Thomson, D. S. and Watts, L. A. and Wilson, J. C. and Reeves, J. M. and Darbeheshti, M. and Baumgardner, D. G. and Kok, G. L. and Chung, S. H. and Schulz, M. and Hendricks, J. and Lauer, A. and Kärcher, B. and Slowik, J. G. and Rosenlof, K. H. and Thompson, T. L. and Langford, A. O. and Loewenstein, M. and Aikin, K. C.}, year={2006}, month=aug }

JSON

{
  "indexed": {
    "date-parts": [
      [
        2025,
        8,
        21
      ]
    ],
    "date-time": "2025-08-21T18:05:35Z",
    "timestamp": 1755799535316,
    "version": "3.41.2"
  },
  "reference-count": 45,
  "publisher": "American Geophysical Union (AGU)",
  "issue": "D16",
  "license": [
    {
      "start": {
        "date-parts": [
          [
            2006,
            8,
            29
          ]
        ],
        "date-time": "2006-08-29T00:00:00Z",
        "timestamp": 1156809600000
      },
      "content-version": "vor",
      "delay-in-days": 2,
      "URL": "http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor"
    }
  ],
  "content-domain": {
    "domain": [],
    "crossmark-restriction": false
  },
  "published-print": {
    "date-parts": [
      [
        2006,
        8,
        27
      ]
    ]
  },
  "abstract": "<jats:p>A single\u2010particle soot photometer (SP2) was flown on a NASA WB\u201057F high\u2010altitude research aircraft in November 2004 from Houston, Texas. The SP2 uses laser\u2010induced incandescence to detect individual black carbon (BC) particles in an air sample in the mass range of \u223c3\u2013300 fg (\u223c0.15\u20130.7 \u03bcm volume equivalent diameter). Scattered light is used to size the remaining non\u2010BC aerosols in the range of \u223c0.17\u20130.7 \u03bcm diameter. We present profiles of both aerosol types from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere from two midlatitude flights. Results for total aerosol amounts in the size range detected by the SP2 are in good agreement with typical particle spectrometer measurements in the same region. All ambient incandescing particles were identified as BC because their incandescence properties matched those of laboratory\u2010generated BC aerosol. Approximately 40% of these BC particles showed evidence of internal mixing (e.g., coating). Throughout profiles between 5 and 18.7 km, BC particles were less than a few percent of total aerosol number, and black carbon aerosol (BCA) mass mixing ratio showed a constant gradient with altitude above 5 km. SP2 data was compared to results from the ECHAM4/MADE and LmDzT\u2010INCA global aerosol models. The comparison will help resolve the important systematic differences in model aerosol processes that determine BCA loadings. Further intercomparisons of models and measurements as presented here will improve the accuracy of the radiative forcing contribution from BCA.</jats:p>",
  "DOI": "10.1029/2006jd007076",
  "type": "journal-article",
  "created": {
    "date-parts": [
      [
        2006,
        8,
        28
      ]
    ],
    "date-time": "2006-08-28T20:03:27Z",
    "timestamp": 1156795407000
  },
  "source": "Crossref",
  "is-referenced-by-count": 611,
  "title": "Single\u2010particle measurements of midlatitude black carbon and light\u2010scattering aerosols from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere",
  "prefix": "10.1029",
  "volume": "111",
  "author": [
    {
      "given": "J. P.",
      "family": "Schwarz",
      "sequence": "first",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "R. S.",
      "family": "Gao",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "D. W.",
      "family": "Fahey",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "D. S.",
      "family": "Thomson",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "L. A.",
      "family": "Watts",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "J. C.",
      "family": "Wilson",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Department of Engineering University of Denver  Denver Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "J. M.",
      "family": "Reeves",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Department of Engineering University of Denver  Denver Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "M.",
      "family": "Darbeheshti",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Department of Engineering University of Denver  Denver Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "D. G.",
      "family": "Baumgardner",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Centro de Ciencias de la Atmosfera Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Ciudad Universitaria  Mexico City Mexico"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "G. L.",
      "family": "Kok",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Droplet Measurement Technologies Inc.  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "S. H.",
      "family": "Chung",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "M.",
      "family": "Schulz",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement  Gif\u2010sur\u2010Yvette France"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "J.",
      "family": "Hendricks",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "DLR\u2010Institut f\u00fcr Physik der Atmosph\u00e4re, Oberpfaffenhofen  Wessling Germany"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "A.",
      "family": "Lauer",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "DLR\u2010Institut f\u00fcr Physik der Atmosph\u00e4re, Oberpfaffenhofen  Wessling Germany"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "B.",
      "family": "K\u00e4rcher",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "DLR\u2010Institut f\u00fcr Physik der Atmosph\u00e4re, Oberpfaffenhofen  Wessling Germany"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "J. G.",
      "family": "Slowik",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Department of Chemistry Boston College  Chestnut Hill Massachusetts USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "K. H.",
      "family": "Rosenlof",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "T. L.",
      "family": "Thompson",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "A. O.",
      "family": "Langford",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "M.",
      "family": "Loewenstein",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "NASA Ames Research Center  Moffett Field California USA"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "given": "K. C.",
      "family": "Aikin",
      "sequence": "additional",
      "affiliation": [
        {
          "name": "Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory NOAA  Boulder Colorado USA"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "member": "13",
  "published-online": {
    "date-parts": [
      [
        2006,
        8,
        29
      ]
    ]
  },
  "reference": [
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_2_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00361-6"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_3_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2003GL018883"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_4_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/94JD03118"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_5_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2001JD001397"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_6_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2004JD005441"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_7_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2003JD004378"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_8_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/96JD00671"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_9_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.5194/acpd-6-2703-2006"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_10_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.12.046"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_11_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1088/0022-3727/30/12/003"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_12_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/97JD03426"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_13_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1016/0048-9697(84)90279-1"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_14_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.5194/acp-4-2521-2004"
    },
    {
      "volume-title": "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis\u2014Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change",
      "year": "2001",
      "author": "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change",
      "key": "e_1_2_8_15_1"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_16_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/1999GL010968"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_17_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1080/027868200410840"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_18_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1175/1520-0426(1995)012<0115:POAFCA>2.0.CO;2"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_19_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1039/dc9878300125"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_20_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.5194/acp-5-1053-2005"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_21_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00368-9"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_22_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2004JD005296"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_23_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2005JD006257"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_24_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/1998JD100091"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_25_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.5194/acp-5-3251-2005"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_26_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1016/S1386-1425(02)00048-3"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_27_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/1999JD901199"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_28_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1021/jp036080l"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_29_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2004JD005169"
    },
    {
      "issue": "52",
      "key": "e_1_2_8_30_1",
      "article-title": "Evolution of mixing state and size distribution of black carbon in the urban plumes observed over the ocean",
      "volume": "86",
      "author": "Moteki N.",
      "year": "2005",
      "journal-title": "Eos Trans. AGU"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_31_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1126/science.282.5394.1664"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_32_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1080/02786820490443094"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_33_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1016/0048-9697(84)90284-5"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_34_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1126/science.256.5062.1432"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_35_1",
      "first-page": "78",
      "article-title": "Continuous measurement of atmospheric black carbon using a multi\u2010angle absorption photometer",
      "volume": "4",
      "author": "Petzold A.",
      "year": "2002",
      "journal-title": "Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_36_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "crossref",
      "first-page": "30",
      "DOI": "10.1007/s00216-002-1611-5",
      "article-title": "Aerosol particle analysis: Challenges and progress",
      "volume": "375",
      "author": "P\u00f6schl U.",
      "year": "2002",
      "journal-title": "Anal. Bioanal. Chem."
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_37_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1063/1.1137316"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_38_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/92GL01801"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_39_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.0731897100"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_40_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/2004JD004548"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_41_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1080/027868290903916"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_42_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1364/AO.42.003726"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_43_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/1999JD900453"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_44_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.5194/acpd-5-8331-2005"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_45_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.5194/acp-5-2289-2005"
    },
    {
      "key": "e_1_2_8_46_1",
      "doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
      "DOI": "10.1029/JC088iC11p06781"
    }
  ],
  "container-title": "Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres",
  "original-title": [],
  "language": "en",
  "link": [
    {
      "URL": "https://api.wiley.com/onlinelibrary/tdm/v1/articles/10.1029%2F2006JD007076",
      "content-type": "unspecified",
      "content-version": "vor",
      "intended-application": "text-mining"
    },
    {
      "URL": "https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2006JD007076",
      "content-type": "unspecified",
      "content-version": "vor",
      "intended-application": "similarity-checking"
    }
  ],
  "deposited": {
    "date-parts": [
      [
        2023,
        10,
        13
      ]
    ],
    "date-time": "2023-10-13T03:36:47Z",
    "timestamp": 1697168207000
  },
  "score": 1,
  "resource": {
    "primary": {
      "URL": "https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2006JD007076"
    }
  },
  "subtitle": [],
  "short-title": [],
  "issued": {
    "date-parts": [
      [
        2006,
        8,
        27
      ]
    ]
  },
  "references-count": 45,
  "journal-issue": {
    "issue": "D16",
    "published-print": {
      "date-parts": [
        [
          2006,
          8,
          27
        ]
      ]
    }
  },
  "alternative-id": [
    "10.1029/2006JD007076"
  ],
  "URL": "http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007076",
  "relation": {},
  "ISSN": [
    "0148-0227"
  ],
  "subject": [],
  "container-title-short": "J. Geophys. Res.",
  "published": {
    "date-parts": [
      [
        2006,
        8,
        27
      ]
    ]
  },
  "article-number": "2006JD007076"
}